Research Report on Power Battery Technology Iteration, Safety Control and Full‑Life‑Cycle Management System for Low‑Altitude Aircraft

Research Report on Power Battery Technology Iteration, Safety Control and Full‑Life‑Cycle Management System for Low‑Altitude Aircraft

Authoring Entities (Authors): Buckhouse Intelligent Technology (Suzhou) Co., Ltd., Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Economy Research Institute, Buckhouse Global Low‑Altitude Economy Industry Network, Buckhouse China Low‑Altitude Economy Industry Network, Buckhouse International Low‑Altitude Economic Cooperation Network, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Manufacturing Platform, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Flight Platform, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Support Platform, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Infrastructure Platform, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Industry Supporting Platform, Buckhouse Low‑Altitude Cross‑Border Integration Platform

Abstract

The low‑altitude economy has emerged as a global strategic emerging industry. Electric vertical take‑off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, industrial and manned UAVs, and electric fixed‑wing low‑altitude aerial vehicles are accelerating toward commercial operation. As the core power source of low‑altitude aircraft, power batteries directly determine the commercial feasibility, operational safety and comprehensive cost level of the low‑altitude industry through their technical performance, safety control capability and full‑life‑cycle management capacity. Different from power batteries for new‑energy vehicles and consumer electronics, power batteries for low‑altitude aircraft must satisfy multiple mutually‑constrained technical indicators including high energy density, ultra‑high discharge rate, wide‑temperature‑range adaptability, aviation‑grade fault tolerance, long cycle life and lightweight design. They also need to withstand complex operating conditions such as instantaneous heavy loads during vertical take‑off and landing, low temperatures at high altitudes, crash impacts, and high‑frequency charge‑discharge cycles. At present, global power batteries for low‑altitude aircraft are in a critical transition period from liquid lithium‑ion batteries to semi‑solid, condensed‑state and all‑solid‑state batteries. The industrial chain still faces numerous technical and institutional shortcomings in cell materials, system integration, thermal management, battery management system (BMS), airworthiness verification, and decommissioning and recycling. Safety accident risks and the absence of full‑chain management have become core obstacles restricting large‑scale promotion.

This report systematically sorts out the global industrial status of power batteries for low‑altitude aircraft, analyzes the technology iteration paths of material systems, cell processes and battery systems, dissects risk points across the complete full‑life‑cycle covering R&D & manufacturing, airworthiness verification, operation & maintenance, in‑flight fault disposal, cascade utilization and recycling & disposal. It establishes a safety control framework and full‑life‑cycle management system adapted to multiple scenarios including manned flight, cargo transportation and emergency rescue, compares differences between domestic and international airworthiness regulatory standards, identifies existing industrial pain points, and puts forward countermeasures and suggestions for technological breakthroughs, standard formulation, operational control, digital infrastructure construction and industrial ecological collaboration. It provides industrial research references for complete‑vehicle manufacturers, battery manufacturers, operation service providers and regulatory authorities.

Total Word Count of Report: Approximately 9,800 words

Keywords: Low‑altitude aircraft; eVTOL; power battery; technology iteration; safety control; full‑life‑cycle; battery passport; airworthiness certification

1. Introduction

1.1 Research Background

The global low‑altitude economy is undergoing rapid development. Multiple countries have rolled out top‑level policies to open low‑altitude airspace. Scenarios such as Urban Air Mobility (UAM), low‑altitude logistics distribution, emergency rescue, agricultural and forestry operations, and aerial sightseeing are advancing pilot operations. China has incorporated the low‑altitude economy into the 15th Five‑Year Plan Outline and positioned it as an emerging pillar industry. The National Development and Reform Commission and Civil Aviation Administration of China keep improving systems for airspace reform, airworthiness certification and operation supervision. The market size of China’s low‑altitude economy reached RMB 1.5 trillion in 2025 and is projected to exceed RMB 3.5 trillion by 2035. Supporting aviation‑grade power batteries are embracing explosive growth opportunities.

Most new‑generation low‑altitude aircraft adopt fully‑electric power solutions. Power batteries account for roughly 30% of aircraft weight and 20‑30% of total material cost, serving as decisive components for aircraft performance and cost. Power batteries for new‑energy vehicles and consumer‑grade UAV batteries cannot be directly applied to manned low‑altitude aviation scenarios. Aviation applications impose extreme requirements for fault tolerance: the catastrophic‑failure probability of power batteries for manned aircraft shall be ≤10⁻⁹ per flight hour, far stricter than safety thresholds for ground transportation vehicles.

Industrial practices indicate that power‑battery‑related failures constitute one major trigger for low‑altitude aircraft accidents. Statistics show that thermal runaway, cell degradation, short circuits and thermal diffusion of power batteries contributed to 17.3% of globally documented UAV accidents in 2025. As manned eVTOL carries out demonstration flights, power‑battery safety risks have risen to a top industry concern. Meanwhile, the industry generally prioritizes R&D and manufacturing over complete closed‑loop management. Most operators lack complete battery ledgers, health‑state assessment and decommissioning disposal mechanisms. A full‑chain traceability system from factory delivery to scrapping has not been widely established, hindering compliant and sustainable industrial development.

1.2 Research Scope and Boundaries

This report studies aviation‑grade power batteries deployed on manned eVTOL, cargo‑carrying eVTOL, large‑scale industrial UAVs and electric fixed‑wing low‑altitude aerial vehicles, excluding simple batteries for miniature recreational consumer UAVs. It covers the full‑life‑cycle chain of power batteries: R&D of cell materials, battery‑pack integrated manufacturing, airworthiness certification, installed operation & maintenance, in‑flight monitoring, fault disposal, decommissioning testing, cascade utilization and material recycling. It focuses on comparing multiple technical routes including high‑nickel ternary liquid‑state batteries, semi‑solid batteries, condensed‑state batteries and all‑solid‑state batteries. It takes both domestic and international regulatory rules into account and differentiates differentiated control requirements for high‑safety manned scenarios and unmanned cargo scenarios.

1.3 Domestic and International Research Status

Overseas, the U.S. FAA and European EASA have issued airworthiness specifications such as SC‑VTOL and RTCA DO‑311A for eVTOL power systems, setting mandatory requirements for battery thermal runaway suppression, crash safety and thermal diffusion blocking. Overseas complete‑vehicle enterprises cooperate with battery manufacturers to develop semi‑solid aviation batteries. Meanwhile, the EU Battery Regulation mandates battery passports for industrial batteries above 2 kWh to facilitate full‑life‑cycle digital traceability. Overseas academic institutions focus on research covering aviation BMS fault‑diagnosis algorithms, thermal‑runaway‑propagation suppression, and safety mechanisms of lithium‑metal anodes for solid‑state batteries. Nevertheless, there are few practical cases of complete full‑life‑cycle management systems oriented toward large‑scale commercial operation.

Domestically, the Equipment Industry Development Center of MIIT released the Technical Roadmap for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries (2025 Edition), clarifying phased technical indicators. The Civil Aviation Administration of China keeps improving airworthiness advisory circulars for low‑altitude aircraft and defining baseline safety tests for power batteries. Leading domestic battery enterprises have achieved small‑batch delivery of aviation‑grade cells with an energy density of 280‑330 Wh/kg, while semi‑solid products at 350‑380 Wh/kg have completed sample delivery and verification. Domestic research concentrates more on cell materials and thermal‑management hardware. System‑oriented research that connects full closed‑loop full‑life‑cycle management, airworthiness and operational scenarios remains to be improved. Supporting standards for battery passports, cascade utilization and aviation‑battery recycling are still under development.

1.4 Research Significance

Theoretically, this report constructs a trinity analytical framework of “technology iteration‑safety control‑full‑life‑cycle management”, clarifies the underlying logic distinguishing low‑altitude aviation power batteries from vehicle‑used batteries, and enriches systematic research on low‑altitude power systems. Practically, it provides systematic references for battery enterprises on technical‑route selection, complete‑vehicle integrated design, and battery operation & maintenance for operators. It supplies industrial‑perspective support for regulators to improve standards, airworthiness certification and safety supervision. It helps the industry reduce power‑battery‑related safety accident probability, cut comprehensive lifecycle operating costs, and advance high‑quality compliant development of the low‑altitude industry.

2. Application Characteristics and Industrial Status of Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries

2.1 Operating‑Condition Characteristics of Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries

Power batteries for low‑altitude aircraft operate under fundamentally different conditions from new‑energy‑vehicle batteries, bringing multiple contradictory constraints. First, strict load limits mean battery weight directly squeezes aircraft payload, generating rigid requirements for energy density. Second, instantaneous high‑power output occurs during take‑off and landing: the discharge rate of eVTOL in vertical take‑off can reach 5‑10 C. Sustained high‑rate charge‑discharge accelerates cell aging and raises heat‑accumulation risks. Third, high‑altitude environments feature drastic temperature fluctuations, with batteries required to endure a wide temperature range of ‑40 ℃ to 55 ℃. Fourth, in‑flight thermal runaway or short‑circuit faults leave extremely short disposal windows, as aircraft cannot perform emergency stops like ground vehicles. Fifth, high‑frequency cycling is required: multiple charge‑discharge cycles per day under commercial operation impose higher requirements for cycle life.

Performance priorities vary across manned, cargo‑carrying and inspection scenarios. Manned scenarios place safety and reliability first, with the strictest requirements for fault tolerance, thermal‑runaway blocking and system redundancy. Cargo‑carrying eVTOL balances energy density, cycle life and cost. Long‑range electric fixed‑wing aircraft prioritize monomer energy density. Agricultural plant‑protection UAVs demand outstanding cycle life, vibration resistance and moisture resistance.

2.2 Global Market Pattern of Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power‑Battery Industry

The global low‑altitude aviation power‑battery industry is in the early industrialization phase with overall shipment at the GWh level yet rapid growth. According to industrial institutions, the global intelligent UAV‑battery market reached RMB 14.74 billion in 2025. Domestic demand for low‑altitude aviation lithium batteries is expected to exceed 10 GWh by 2030 and hit 50 GWh by 2035. High‑nickel ternary liquid‑state polymer cells remain mainstream. Semi‑solid batteries are in sample‑delivery and small‑scale pilot stages, while all‑solid‑state batteries stay in laboratory and engineering R&D and cannot achieve large‑scale mass delivery in the short term.

China occupies the major global share in cell manufacturing, accounting for 63.8 % of global UAV‑battery output in 2025. CATL, EVE Energy, Farasis Energy, Sunwoda and other enterprises have launched aviation‑oriented battery products with energy density ranging from 280‑360 Wh/kg. Overseas enterprises focus on material R&D, system integration and airworthiness verification. Restricted by production capacity and cost, their overall mass‑production scale lags behind domestic counterparts. Aviation‑grade batteries are far more than simple cell assembly. System integration, BMS software, airworthiness verification and full‑cycle operation‑maintenance capabilities constitute major industrial‑chain barriers. At present, aviation‑battery products are priced significantly higher than vehicle‑grade batteries, raising complete‑vehicle procurement and operating costs.

2.3 Major Industrial Pain Points

First, multiple performance indicators cannot be satisfied simultaneously. Materials delivering high energy density often suffer from degraded thermal stability; high‑power discharge shortens cycle life; high‑safety design tends to increase weight, creating inherent trade‑offs at the material level. No mature commercial product perfectly meets all aviation‑grade indicators.

Second, airworthiness‑certification system construction lags behind. Aviation power batteries cannot directly adopt the automotive IATF16949 quality system and must comply with the AS9100 aviation quality system. BMS software needs to meet DO‑178C software‑level requirements. Full airworthiness verification involves long cycles and heavy investment. Unified dedicated global standards for aviation power batteries are still evolving.

Third, safety risks span long chains. Risks stem from cell‑manufacturing defects, system‑integration flaws, BMS‑algorithm failure, improper charge‑discharge, high‑altitude environmental erosion and mechanical crash damage. Failure in any single link may trigger flight accidents.

Fourth, full‑life‑cycle closed‑loop management is lacking. Most operators lack complete digital ledgers and sufficient battery‑health‑state assessment tools. Standards for decommissioned aviation‑grade power‑battery cascade‑utilization evaluation, disassembly‑recycling processes and safe‑disposal workflows are not fully established, bringing dual safety and environmental hazards.

Fifth, cost pressure is prominent. Low production volumes and heavy R&D‑verification investment push the per‑Wh cost far above vehicle‑used power batteries. Battery‑replacement costs represent a major expense for low‑altitude operators and restrict commercial promotion.

3. Analysis on Technology Iteration Paths for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries

Technology iteration of low‑altitude aircraft power batteries advances along three main threads: material‑chemical systems, cell‑manufacturing processes and battery‑system integration. It follows a stepwise evolution: optimization of liquid lithium‑ion batteries → large‑scale application of semi‑solid batteries → engineering‑oriented deployment of condensed‑state / all‑solid‑state batteries. Different technical routes correspond to distinct time windows and applicable scenarios.

3.1 Iteration of Cell Material Systems

3.1.1 High‑Nickel Ternary Liquid Lithium‑Ion Batteries (Current Mainstream Mass‑Production Route)

High‑nickel ternary paired with silicon‑carbon anodes is the dominant commercial solution, delivering monomer energy density of 280‑330 Wh/kg and system‑level energy density of 240‑300 Wh/kg. Its peak discharge rate satisfies 5‑10 C requirements for short‑haul cargo UAVs, sightseeing UAVs and early demonstration eVTOL operations. Its weakness lies in limited thermal stability of high‑nickel systems. Lithium‑plating and gas generation may occur during high‑rate cycling, so thermal‑runaway risk control heavily relies on system‑level thermal management, thermal insulation and pressure‑relief structural design. Lithium‑iron‑phosphate batteries feature superior safety yet lower energy density. They are mostly deployed on low‑payload industrial UAVs with moderate range requirements and cannot meet weight‑reduction and long‑range needs for manned eVTOL.

3.1.2 Semi‑Solid Batteries (Key Near‑Medium‑Term Iteration Direction, 2026‑2028)

Semi‑solid batteries partially replace liquid electrolyte and adopt composite solid electrolytes. While retaining compatibility with existing production lines, they enhance thermal stability, achieve energy density of 350‑400 Wh/kg and substantially improve performance under needle‑prick and extrusion abuse tests. Cycle life rises to 1,500‑2,000 cycles. The industry regards semi‑solid batteries as a critical inflection point for large‑scale commercialization of manned eVTOL. Improved energy density enables aircraft range exceeding 200 km and mitigates thermal‑diffusion risks. Multiple domestic enterprises have completed sample verification for aviation‑grade semi‑solid batteries. Drawbacks include residual liquid electrolyte that cannot eliminate thermal‑runaway risks entirely. Mass‑production consistency and cost control present major industrialization challenges.

3.1.3 Condensed‑State and All‑Solid‑State Batteries (Medium‑Long‑Term Technical Objectives, 2028‑2035)

Condensed‑state batteries and lithium‑metal‑anode all‑solid‑state batteries represent long‑term technical routes, targeting cell energy density above 450‑500 Wh/kg and thermal‑decomposition temperature over 500 ℃, substantially lowering thermal‑runaway probability from the material level. In theory, they support cross‑city low‑altitude commuting above 300 km. However, this route faces engineering challenges including lithium‑dendrite suppression, interfacial impedance, high large‑scale‑manufacturing costs and process yield. Prototypes remain at laboratory stage, and aviation‑grade airworthiness mass production will take considerable time; large‑scale commercial deployment is not expected in the short run.

3.2 Iteration Trends of Cell and Manufacturing Processes

Pouch cells gain growing adoption in low‑altitude aviation, offering light weight, favorable heat dissipation and easy‑to‑implement pressure‑relief structures matching aviation weight‑reduction requirements. Prismatic cells are deployed in some cargo‑carrying models for structural strength advantages. Process‑side R&D covers ultra‑thin current collectors, high‑loading electrodes and low‑impedance interface‑modification technologies. Consistency control throughout manufacturing is reinforced. Aviation‑grade cells tolerate far fewer impurities and electrode defects than consumer and automotive cells. Minor manufacturing flaws may be amplified under high‑rate high‑altitude operating conditions and induce safety hazards.

For manufacturing‑quality control, aviation cells require higher‑than‑automotive full‑process inspection with additional monitoring points for electrode defects, tab welding, electrolyte injection and formation. Traceability for every single cell is implemented to screen out latent‑defect cells and reduce in‑flight failure probability.

3.3 Iteration of Battery‑System‑Integration Technologies

Pure cell‑performance improvement cannot satisfy aviation requirements; system integration constitutes another core iteration thread.
First, lightweight integration. Composite‑material enclosures and integrated thermal‑management structures reduce the proportion of non‑active substances and raise system‑level energy density.
Second, thermal‑runaway blocking technologies. Module‑level thermal insulation, aerogel barrier layers, directional pressure‑relief channels and passive fire‑proof structures are developed to realize “thermal runaway of one cell without diffusion to adjacent modules”, meeting core mandatory airworthiness indicators. Even if one cell suffers thermal runaway, the aircraft shall retain a time window for safe landing.
Third, iteration of high‑reliability BMS. Aviation‑grade BMS differs from automotive BMS. Its software must meet aviation‑software airworthiness levels. It delivers high‑precision SOC and SOH estimation, early identification of subtle fault features, online EIS electrochemical‑impedance monitoring, early lithium‑plating warning and multi‑fault‑mode redundancy processing. Algorithms evolve from simple threshold judgment toward hybrid model‑and‑data‑driven diagnosis to enhance subtle‑fault identification for high‑reliability performance under complex high‑altitude conditions.
Fourth, wide‑temperature‑range thermal‑management systems. They combine low‑temperature preheating and high‑heat‑discharge heat dissipation to maintain cells within optimal temperature ranges under extreme environments from ‑40 ℃ to 55 ℃.
Fifth, anti‑vibration and anti‑impact structural design. Structural integrity of modules, wiring harnesses and connectors is guaranteed under take‑off‑and‑landing turbulence and crash‑impact conditions to avoid internal short‑circuits caused by vibration friction.

3.4 Phased Development Objectives for Technical Routes

In reference to the Technical Roadmap for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries (2025 Edition), industrial development can be divided into three phases:
Phase I (2025‑2027): Optimize liquid high‑nickel ternary systems; realize small‑scale aviation pilot applications of semi‑solid batteries. For manned scenarios, target cell energy density of 320‑360 Wh/kg, system energy density ≥300 Wh/kg, cycle life ≥1,200 cycles. Complete multi‑model airworthiness verification to support short‑haul urban‑air‑mobility demonstration operations.
Phase II (2028‑2030): Large‑scale commercial deployment of semi‑solid batteries; verification of condensed‑state prototypes. Cell energy density advances toward 400‑450 Wh/kg, system energy density ≥350 Wh/kg. Mature thermal‑runaway‑blocking technologies support medium‑range manned flights and large‑scale cargo‑carrying eVTOL operations.
Phase III (2031‑2035): Gradual engineering deployment of all‑solid‑state batteries targeting 500 Wh/kg‑level cells, substantially lowering thermal‑runaway risks and supporting long‑range cross‑urban‑agglomeration low‑altitude flights.

4. Multi‑Dimensional Safety‑Control System for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries

Safety control for low‑altitude aircraft power batteries cannot be limited to post‑fault disposal. A hierarchical full‑chain safety‑control system covering R&D‑design, manufacturing, airworthiness verification, installed operation‑maintenance and in‑flight fault disposal shall be established, consisting of five layers: intrinsic safety, system‑isolation safety, online‑monitoring‑early‑warning safety, operational‑procedure safety and emergency‑disposal safety.

4.1 Intrinsic‑Safety Control: Source‑Level Material and Cell‑Design Safety

Intrinsic safety serves as the first line of defense, lowering fault probability through material‑chemical‑system and cell‑structure design. During material selection, abuse tests including extrusion, nail penetration, over‑charging and high‑temperature baking are conducted for aviation‑scenario thermal‑behavior evaluation. Internal safety pressure‑relief valves and explosion‑proof structures suppress chained internal‑short‑circuit reactions. A cell‑grading‑selection mechanism shall be implemented: manned aircraft must adopt cells validated against complete aviation‑abuse tests. Consumer‑grade or automotive‑grade cells without aviation‑modified validation shall not be directly installed.

For intrinsic safety, it shall be clarified that no power battery is failure‑proof. Intrinsic‑safety objectives reduce fault probability, while system‑isolation design contains failure‑consequence propagation.

4.2 System‑Level Isolation and Fault‑Tolerance Safety Control

Even upon single‑cell failure, system‑level measures must block fault spread, which is the key distinction between aviation safety and ground‑vehicle safety. Core system‑safety‑control points include: thermal‑insulation and flame‑retardant isolation design between modules; directional pressure‑relief channels guiding high‑temperature flammable gas generated by thermal runaway to safe aircraft zones; multi‑fuse protection for electrical loops for rapid fault‑loop cut‑off; enclosures resisting flame impact and crash impact; real‑time high‑voltage‑system insulation monitoring; redundant battery‑pack structural design passing drop‑and‑impact tests simulating aircraft crashes to prevent violent fire‑explosion after impact.

Domestic and international airworthiness standards mandate that manned aircraft shall retain sufficient time for safe forced landing without catastrophic complete‑vehicle damage upon single‑cell thermal runaway. RTCA DO‑311A and EASA SC‑VTOL set mandatory test baselines for thermal‑runaway propagation and crash safety. Domestic civil‑aviation airworthiness requirements align with advanced international standards for verification tests.

4.3 Online‑Monitoring‑and‑Early‑Warning Control Based on BMS and Digital Perception

The battery‑management system acts as the safety hub during flight. Compared with automotive BMS, aviation‑grade BMS demands higher reliability, fault‑identification sensitivity and airworthiness software grades. Monitoring covers cell voltage, module voltage, multi‑point temperature, charge‑discharge current, insulation impedance and electrochemical‑impedance features, enabling early identification of cell lithium‑plating, micro‑short‑circuits and internal aging degradation instead of triggering alarms only after obvious faults erupt. Hierarchical fault strategies are formulated: early warnings for minor anomalies; power‑output restriction for moderate faults; high‑voltage cut‑off for severe faults linked with flight‑control‑system forced‑landing procedures.

Current industrial pain points include limited capacity of many BMS units to identify slowly‑evolving latent defects during cycling. Future adoption of digital‑twin battery models trained on big historical data will deliver accurate SOH health‑state evaluation, predict battery‑failure risks in advance and intercept faults before take‑off rather than exposing risks mid‑flight.

4.4 Operational‑Procedure Safety Control

Numerous battery‑safety hazards stem from non‑standard operational practices. Standardized operational‑control workflows must be established.
Charging: deploy dedicated aviation‑grade charging equipment, strictly control charging rates and prohibit over‑SOC over‑charging; implement thermal management for high‑temperature‑environment charging. Batteries suffering collision or impact shall undergo fault inspection before charging.
Storage: maintain 50‑60 % SOC for long‑term storage within 15‑25 ℃ temperature‑controlled environments; avoid high‑temperature, low‑temperature and humid warehouses, and conduct regular performance inspections.
Pre‑flight inspection: adopt battery‑pre‑check checklists covering appearance‑damage inspection, insulation testing and BMS fault‑code reading. Batteries with health‑state below thresholds shall be prohibited from manned‑flight missions.
Environmental‑boundary control: restrict operations beyond battery‑allowable high‑low‑temperature ranges; impose constraints on battery use under extreme weather and thunder‑lightning conditions.
Personnel‑competency control: provide special training on aviation‑grade power batteries for operation‑maintenance staff, clarify risk‑identification and operational specifications, and prohibit dangerous behaviors such as unauthorized battery‑pack modification and cell mixing.

4.5 Fault‑and‑Accident Emergency‑Disposal Control

Three scenarios are addressed: in‑flight fault disposal, ground‑fault disposal and post‑crash‑accident disposal.
In‑flight faults: BMS links with flight control to execute pre‑set degraded‑operation strategies, limit power output and guide aircraft to forced‑land nearby to avoid casualties.
Ground faults: batteries with swelling, liquid leakage or abnormal overheating shall be transferred to dedicated explosion‑proof disposal zones. Conventional water‑based fire‑fighting is prohibited; special lithium‑battery fire‑suppression solutions for aviation use shall be adopted.
Post‑crash scenarios: power batteries may suffer delayed thermal runaway after aircraft crashes. Danger‑isolation zones shall be demarcated, and disposal shall only proceed after professional personnel complete assessment to prevent secondary fire‑explosion.

An accident‑data‑traceback mechanism shall be established. For battery‑related anomalies, complete BMS log data shall be retained for root‑cause analysis, iterating cell, system and operation‑maintenance workflows to form safety closed loops.

4.6 Comparative Analysis of Global Airworthiness Regulatory Standards

Major global civil‑aviation regulators have built differentiated regulatory frameworks for power batteries of electric low‑altitude aircraft. CAAC of China mainly references RTCA DO‑311A for drop‑impact, thermal‑runaway‑propagation, fire‑proof and pressure‑relief tests. EASA SC‑VTOL imposes a 5‑minute thermal‑runaway‑control requirement for strict assessment of post‑fault safety windows. The U.S. FAA also adopts DO‑311A as its foundation while mandating constraints for battery transportation and component quality systems. While standards converge in general directions, discrepancies exist in test details, software‑airworthiness grades and quality‑system certification. Products for cross‑border commercial operation shall comply with multi‑jurisdictional compliance requirements.

Meanwhile, updates to the EU Battery Regulation and IATA Dangerous‑Goods Transport Rules impose new compliance requirements for aviation‑battery transportation, battery passports and extended‑producer‑responsibility systems. Enterprises engaging in overseas business shall track evolving international regulations.

5. Construction of Full‑Life‑Cycle Management System for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries

The full‑life‑cycle of low‑altitude aircraft power batteries covers seven phases: R&D‑manufacturing & factory‑delivery verification, airworthiness certification, installed‑service operation‑maintenance, fault maintenance, decommissioning assessment, cascade utilization and recycling‑resource‑oriented disposal. Core objectives of full‑life‑cycle management include full‑process traceability, full‑stage risk control, comprehensive‑use‑cost optimization, together with safe production and environmental protection. The digital battery passport serves as the digital foundation for the whole system.

5.1 Phase 1: R&D‑Manufacturing, Factory‑Delivery and Airworthiness‑Verification Phase

This phase constitutes the source of full‑life‑cycle data. Each aviation‑grade power‑battery pack is assigned a unique tamper‑proof identity code bound to its digital battery passport, recording cell batches, module‑assembly information, factory‑test parameters, BMS versions, airworthiness‑certificate numbers, factory‑delivery time and other basic archives. Manufacturing implements traceability for every single cell with archived key‑process inspection data. Complete abuse tests and performance calibration are performed before factory‑delivery. During airworthiness assessment, test reports, quality‑system documents and FMEA (Failure‑Mode‑and‑Effects‑Analysis) reports are incorporated into archives. Batteries without completed airworthiness certification shall not be deployed for manned operations.

5.2 Phase 2: Installed‑Service and In‑Flight Operation‑Maintenance Phase

After battery installation, data from every flight and every charge‑discharge cycle is continuously transmitted to the battery‑digital‑management platform. Flight operating conditions, charge‑discharge rates, temperature curves and fault‑alarm records are logged to continuously calculate SOH health state and dynamically evaluate remaining service life. Hierarchical decommissioning thresholds are defined: batteries with attenuated health‑state below thresholds, or batteries sustaining impact, water immersion or severe faults shall trigger immediate offline‑assessment workflows and be barred from manned flights.

More conservative offline‑health‑state thresholds apply to manned aircraft compared with cargo‑carrying scenarios. Operation‑maintenance ledgers shall maintain one file per aircraft and one file per battery pack. Complete ledger updates are mandatory when battery packs are relocated across aircraft to eliminate safety hazards caused by ledger confusion. Practical cases show that fully‑implemented full‑life‑cycle operation‑maintenance management can raise average battery cycle life by over 30 % and significantly lower annual replacement costs.

5.3 Phase 3: Fault Inspection, Maintenance and Re‑Assessment Phase

Unlimited maintenance is not permitted for low‑altitude aviation batteries. Strict constraints govern maintenance workflows under aviation scenarios. Faulty battery packs cannot resume service by simply replacing single cells. Complete inspections shall be performed following airworthiness‑maintenance specifications to assess associated damage to modules, wiring harnesses and thermal‑management systems. Full‑performance verification is required before re‑entry into service. Battery packs involved in impact or crash accidents shall in principle be prohibited from maintenance reuse and directly enter decommissioning‑disposal workflows to avoid hidden flight risks caused by invisible internal damage. All maintenance‑inspection records are written into the digital battery passport.

5.4 Phase 4: Decommissioning Assessment and Cascade‑Utilization Phase

Power batteries reaching aviation‑service‑life end‑of‑life are not completely scrapped. Decommissioned aviation‑grade batteries cannot be directly reinstalled for flight operations. Standardized decommissioning‑assessment including full tests of monomer consistency, safety and residual capacity shall be completed. Qualified battery packs may be cascaded to non‑aviation scenarios such as energy‑storage systems and low‑speed ground equipment. Units with internal‑damage risks failing assessment shall directly enter material‑recycling workflows. It is an industry red line to prohibit decommissioned aviation‑grade batteries from re‑entering low‑altitude‑aircraft‑operation markets.

Current industrial shortcomings include the absence of dedicated cascade‑evaluation standards for aviation‑grade power batteries. Most existing standards are adapted from new‑energy‑vehicle cascade‑utilization specifications and poorly fit damage characteristics under aviation‑battery operating conditions. Accelerated formulation of industrial standards is required.

5.5 Phase 5: Recycling‑Disassembly and Resource‑Oriented Disposal

High‑energy‑density aviation‑grade power batteries retain high thermal‑runaway risks after decommissioning. Recycling‑disposal hazards exceed those of ordinary vehicle‑used batteries. Workflows include safety inspection before decommissioned‑battery warehousing, controlled residual‑electric‑quantity discharge, disassembly within explosion‑proof environments, classification and separation of positive electrodes, negative electrodes, electrolytes and enclosure materials, and material disposal complying with hazardous‑substance‑management regulations. UN38.3 transportation standards shall be followed with protective measures for transit to prevent fire‑accidents during disassembly and transportation.

Extended‑Producer‑Responsibility (EPR) systems shall be implemented. Battery manufacturers and complete‑vehicle enterprises share primary responsibilities for decommissioned‑product recycling. Full‑process recycling data is logged into the digital battery passport to realize complete closed‑loop traceability from cell factory‑delivery to material recycling.

5.6 Digital Foundation: Construction of Battery Passports for Low‑Altitude‑Aircraft Power Batteries

The battery passport represents the core digital carrier for full‑life‑cycle management. Each aviation‑grade power battery is assigned a unique digital identity linking data across manufacturing, airworthiness, operation‑maintenance, maintenance, decommissioning and recycling. Core stored information includes basic identity data, factory‑test data, airworthiness‑compliance documents, full historical flight‑charge‑discharge records, fault‑alarm logs, maintenance records, health‑state‑assessment reports, decommissioning destinations and recycling‑disposal records.

Battery passports support hierarchical authorized access for regulators, complete‑vehicle manufacturers, operating enterprises and recycling institutions, with each party accessing corresponding authorized data. They satisfy operation‑enterprise operation‑maintenance needs while supporting regulatory safety supervision. Complete historical data can be rapidly retrieved for root‑cause analysis upon accidents. Referencing EU Battery‑Regulation requirements, battery passports for aviation‑grade power batteries above 2 kWh will become an inevitable industry trend.

5.7 Practical Challenges for Full‑Life‑Cycle Management

First, industrial‑chain data fragmentation. Cell manufacturers, system integrators, operating enterprises and recycling institutions belong to separate market entities. Data interconnection faces obstacles, and many links suffer data silos hindering complete closed loops.

Second, shortage of dedicated standards. Standards for aviation‑battery health‑state judgment, decommissioning assessment, cascade utilization and recycling‑disposal are not fully established. Many links adopt vehicle‑battery standards with insufficient adaptability.

Third, cost constraints. Complete digital archives, battery passports and high‑frequency assessment inspections raise operating costs. Balancing safety and cost presents practical difficulties for the early‑commercial‑stage low‑altitude industry.

Fourth, uneven capacity among industry participants. Many small‑and‑medium‑sized operators lack specialized battery‑operation‑maintenance teams, creating implementation gaps for full‑life‑cycle‑management systems.

6. Major Industrial Challenges and Countermeasure Suggestions

6.1 Major Industrial Challenges

Synthesizing preceding analysis, five core challenges confront the low‑altitude‑aircraft power‑battery industry.
First, technical multi‑performance‑objective trade‑offs. Co‑optimization of high energy density, high safety, high rate capability and long cycle life proves difficult. Semi‑solid and solid‑state‑battery engineering mass‑production faces multiple engineering bottlenecks.

Second, airworthiness‑and‑standard‑system construction lags behind industrial development. Specialized complete national standards for aviation‑grade power batteries are absent; standards covering testing, maintenance, cascade utilization and recycling require improvement. International‑standard mutual recognition needs further advancement.

Third, long safety‑control chains. Some market participants prioritize product R&D while neglecting operational‑side safety management. Insufficient professional personnel competence creates objective risks of unauthorized modification and extended‑service‑life operation.

Fourth, full‑life‑cycle closed‑loop‑management systems are not widely adopted. Data‑silo problems persist, and digital‑infrastructure construction for battery passports remains in early stages.

Fifth, persistently high costs. Low production volumes and heavy R&D‑verification investment raise complete‑vehicle procurement and operating costs and hinder large‑scale commercialization.

6.2 Countermeasure Suggestions

6.2.1 Promote Collaborative R&D of Key Technologies

Industry‑university‑research‑application collaboration shall advance industrial‑oriented R&D of semi‑solid aviation‑grade batteries, alongside medium‑long‑term pre‑research on condensed‑state and all‑solid‑state batteries. Prioritize breakthroughs in high‑safety cell materials, thermal‑runaway‑suppression systems, high‑reliability aviation‑grade BMS, digital‑twin‑battery health‑assessment algorithms and lightweight‑integration technologies. Special‑condition testing oriented toward low‑altitude‑aviation operating conditions shall be encouraged, and public test‑verification platforms shall be built to lower verification costs for small‑and‑medium‑sized enterprises. Balance energy density and safety; avoid weakening safety baselines in pursuit of higher energy density alone.

6.2.2 Accelerate Improvement of Standards and Airworthiness‑Supervision Systems

Complete standard systems for low‑altitude‑aircraft power batteries shall be issued covering cell, module, system, BMS testing, operation‑maintenance‑repair, decommissioning assessment, cascade utilization and recycling‑disposal. Supporting airworthiness‑certification technical documents shall be refined to clarify requirements for aviation‑power‑battery FMEA analysis, software‑airworthiness grades and quality systems. Align domestic standards with international specifications such as RTCA DO‑311A and EASA documents and promote international mutual recognition. Implement differentiated safety requirements for manned and unmanned cargo‑carrying scenarios to avoid one‑size‑fits‑all standards.

6.2.3 Build Multi‑Level Safety‑Control Implementation Mechanisms

Three‑party safety subject liabilities shall be enforced for manufacturers, complete‑vehicle enterprises and operating enterprises. Manufacturers shall uphold intrinsic‑safety baselines; complete‑vehicle integrators shall implement system‑safety‑isolation design; operating enterprises shall enforce daily operation‑maintenance, pre‑flight inspection and personnel‑training systems. Regulators shall strengthen supervision over unauthorized battery modification, over‑age‑service‑life operation and re‑entry of decommissioned aviation‑grade batteries into aviation markets. Fault‑data‑reporting mechanisms shall be promoted, and an industrial‑accident database shall be established to iteratively update safety specifications via case studies.

6.2.4 Promote Digital Battery Passports and Realize Full‑Life‑Cycle Closed‑Loop Management

Mandatory deployment of digital battery passports for low‑altitude‑aviation power batteries shall be promoted to connect data links across manufacturing, airworthiness, operation‑maintenance, maintenance, decommissioning and recycling. Industry‑wide unified digital‑technology infrastructures shall be encouraged to resolve industrial‑chain data silos. Technical specifications for aviation‑battery decommissioning assessment shall be released to define criteria for cascade‑utilization eligibility and mandatory recycling, prohibiting re‑entry of decommissioned aviation‑grade batteries into flight scenarios. Implement extended‑producer‑responsibility systems and open recycling channels for aviation‑grade power batteries. Guide operating enterprises to build complete battery‑ledger‑management systems and incorporate full‑life‑cycle‑management requirements into operational‑access assessment factors.

6.2.5 Boost Industrial‑Ecosystem Collaboration and Achieve Gradual Cost Reduction

High aviation‑battery costs represent an objective industrial‑stage characteristic. Cost reduction shall not be pursued by compromising safety investment. Expand reasonable market scale via demonstration applications to drive supply‑chain iteration and cost optimization. Distinguish demonstration‑pilot and large‑scale‑commercial‑phases. Prioritize technology iteration in non‑manned scenarios such as cargo transportation and inspection before expanding manned‑scenario commercialization. Encourage joint‑scenario‑pilots among complete‑vehicle enterprises, battery manufacturers and operators to iterate technologies, standards and operation‑maintenance workflows in practice.

7. Conclusions and Outlook

Power batteries for low‑altitude aircraft constitute a core bottleneck for the low‑altitude economy. Technology iteration, safety control and full‑life‑cycle management are inseparable. Technology iteration determines performance upper limits; safety control defends against flight risks; full‑life‑cycle management delivers risk control from factory‑delivery through recycling. Collectively they underpin safe commercialization of the low‑altitude industry.

In the short term (2026‑2028), semi‑solid batteries will serve as the core industrial‑iteration mainline, while liquid high‑nickel ternary batteries will remain widely deployed for low‑payload scenarios. In the medium‑long run, semi‑solid technologies will evolve toward condensed‑state and all‑solid‑state solutions to continuously enhance energy density and material‑level safety. Nevertheless, no material‑technology route can eliminate failure risks entirely. Industrial safety shall not rely solely on material properties. System isolation, online monitoring, standardized operation and complete full‑life‑cycle closed‑loop management remain indispensable safeguards.

Current industry standards, digital‑infrastructure and recycling systems are under construction. All industry stakeholders shall collaboratively advance technological breakthroughs, standard improvement and digital‑infrastructure construction. Implement hierarchical management differentiating manned and cargo‑carrying scenarios and balance safety, performance and cost. As supporting systems mature, low‑altitude‑aircraft power batteries will enable large‑scale deployment of urban‑air‑mobility, low‑altitude logistics and emergency‑rescue scenarios and unlock enormous industrial value of the low‑altitude economy. Meanwhile, it should be recognized that the industry remains in early‑stage development, and numerous practical engineering challenges await exploration and refinement through demonstration operations.

Data Sources

[1] Equipment Industry Development Center, MIIT. Technical Roadmap for Low‑Altitude Aircraft Power Batteries (2025 Edition)[R].2025
[2] Civil Aviation Administration of China. Airworthiness Requirements for Electric Low‑Altitude Aerial Vehicles in Urban Scenarios (Draft for Comments)[S].2026
[3] RTCA DO‑311A Airborne Lithium‑Battery Airworthiness Standard; EASA SC‑VTOL Series Specifications
[4] CCID Research Institute, Guolian Securities, Hengzhou Chengsi Industrial Research Reports, 2025‑2026
[5] Boston Consulting Group. White Paper on China’s Manned eVTOL Industry[R].2025
[6] Science & Technology Review, Academic Literature on Safety Assessment of Low‑Altitude‑Aircraft Power Systems
[7] Gongyan Industrial Research Institute. In‑Depth Report on Global UAV‑Battery Industry 2026
[8] Public technical white papers and sample‑product public parameters from leading domestic battery enterprises
[9] IATA DGR Dangerous‑Goods Transport Regulations, EU Battery Regulation public documents
[10] Public industrial‑accident statistics and practical demonstration‑project‑operation cases

Disclaimer

This report is compiled by Buckhouse‑series research platforms based on public industrial materials, public‑industry data and open technical literature. All analyses, judgments and forecasts in this report serve only as references for industrial academic research. They do not constitute direct bases for product selection, investment, commercial decision‑making or compliance judgment. The report cites third‑party public data; absolute authenticity of original third‑party data is not guaranteed. Industry technologies evolve rapidly, and viewpoints reflect research understanding at the report‑compilation time point. Subsequent technological progress and policy updates will alter objective conditions. Any risks arising from commercial, investment or engineering practices conducted by institutions or individuals based on this report shall be borne by the acting entities. Report content shall not replace official regulatory documents, laws and airworthiness standards issued by civil‑aviation and competent‑regulatory authorities. Commercial deployment of relevant products must strictly comply with official laws, standards and airworthiness‑certification requirements issued by local regulatory authorities and civil‑aviation competent departments. Intellectual property rights of this report belong to the authoring entities. Unauthorized tampering, secondary compilation and commercial dissemination are prohibited without written permission.

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